Household Power Saver Woking

Household Power Saver

Low-energy home appliances have recently received a lot of attention from consumers and manufacturers. It is usually a small tool that should be connected to any AC sockets in the house (Especially near the Energy Meter) used in living rooms to save energy and reduce electricity bills. In addition, some companies claim to save energy by up to 40% of their energy.

Applicable Power Conservation Policy as per Performance

Power Saver is a tool that connects to a power socket. Obviously keeping the device connected will quickly reduce your power consumption. Typical savings claims are between 25% and 40%.

It is well known that the electricity that comes into our homes is not naturally stable. There are many variations, ups and downs, and surges / Spikes in this stream. The latter unstable cannot be used by any household appliances. In addition, current fluctuations waste energy from the circuit by converting electrical energy into thermal energy.

This heat energy not only damages the atmosphere, but it also damages electrical appliances and the cable circuit.

Power Saver keeps electricity inside using a capacitor system and delivers it smoothly to normal without spikes. The systems also automatically remove carbon from the circuit and promote a smooth flow of electricity. This means we will have less energy spikes. More electricity flowing around the circuit can be used to generate more electricity than before.

It is basically said that Power Savers operate on the principle of surgical protection technology. Power savers work in directing this volatile current to provide smooth and continuous output. Voltage fluctuations are unpredictable and cannot be controlled. Power savers use capacitors for this purpose. When there is an increase in power in the circuit, the energy storage capacitor retains the excess current and releases it when it suddenly drops. So only the smooth output from the device.

In addition, the energy reservoir also removes any type of carbon from the system, which facilitates more smooth flow. The main advantage of power savers is not that they provide a support system at low current times, but that they protect household items. It is well-known that the sudden rise of power can destroy electricity. Therefore, energy conservation not only protects the machine but also extends its life span. In addition, they reduce energy consumption as well as electricity bills.

The amount of energy stored by an energy reservoir depends on the amount of material used in the electrical circuit. Also, the system takes at least a week to fully adapt to the circuit, before it begins to show its high performance. High energy efficiency will be seen in areas where current volatility is very high.

To support the above statement we first need to understand three words:

1. Type of electrical load in the house,

2. Basic terminology (KW, KVA, KVAR).

3. The electricity company's electricity tax method for the home buyer and the consumer of the industry.

There are two types of load available in each house: one that can withstand lamps such as incandescent lamps, heaters etc. and other powerful or flexible ones such as ACs, refrigerators, computers, etc.

The strength factor of the Resistance Load such as a toaster or ordinary incandescent lamp is 1 (one). Devices with coils or capacitors (such as pumps, fans and ballast flashlights) - Active load has less than one power factor. If the power factor is less than 1, the current and voltage are out of phase. This is due to the energy being stored and discharged into inductors (car coil) or capacitors throughout the AC cycle (usually 50 or 60 times per second).

There are three words that need to be understood when working with alternating power (AC).

1. The First Term is a kilowatt (kW) and represents True Power. Real power can do the job. The use meters on the House side measure this value (Real Power) and the Energy Company charge for it.

2. The second term is active power, measured by KVAR. Unlike kW, it cannot do the job.Restay customers do not pay KVAR, and the meters used in homes do not record again.

3. The third term is the physical force, called KVA. By using multiple meters we can measure current and voltage and then re-read together we get the visible power in the VA.

 Power triangle

Power Factor = Real Power (Watts) / Visual Energy (VA)

Therefore, Real Power (Watts) = Visual Power × PF = Voltage × Ampere × PF.

Ideally PF = 1, or cohesive, in the application describes the pure and desirable energy consumption especially for Home Appliances (dispersed output power equal to the input power used).

In the above formula we can see that when the PF is less than 1, the amperes (current usage) of the machines increase, and the opposite verse.

With AC Resistive Load, the voltage stays in the current phase and produces a positive power factor equal to 1. However, with inductive or capacitive loads, the current waveform is delayed after the voltage waveform and is not in tandem. This is due to the natural structures of these devices to store and release energy through AC wave fluctuations, and this results in a completely distorted wave, reducing the amount of PF used.

The manufacturers claim that the above problem can be solved by installing a well-calculated inductor / capacitor network and changing it automatically and appropriately to correct this variability. The energy saving unit is designed specifically for this purpose. This adjustment is able to bring the level of PF closer to unity, thereby enhancing significant power significantly. Improved optical power will mean less CURRENT use of all household appliances.

So far everything looks fine, but what about the use of the above fix?

The Utility Bill We Pay is never based on Apparent Power (KVA) but based on Real Power (KW). The service bill we pay is never about Physical Power - it is Real Power.

By Reducing Current Consumption Does Not Reduce Home Consumer Energy Debts.

Home Conservation Energy Conservation Study

Let's try to study the Effective Home Electricity Load and the Voltage Spectrum feature for example.

1. Energy Conservation in Active Home Load

Let's Take One Example of Functional Load: Refrigerator with Real Rated Power of 100 watts of 220 V AC has PF = 0.6. Thus Power = Volt X Amplifier X P.F becomes 100 = 220 × A × 0.6 Therefore, A = 0.75 Ampere

Now let's say that after installing Power Conservation when PF is brought to about 0.9, the above result will now appear as follows: 100 = 220 × A × 0.9 And A = 0.5 Ampere

In the second statement clearly shows that the current consumption reduction is refrigerant, but interesting in both cases, Real Power remains the same, i.e. the refrigerator continues to use 100 watts, so the utility bill remains the same. This only proves that although the PF-made amendment to energy conservation may reduce the Amperage of electrical equipment, it will never reduce their energy consumption and the value of the Electricity Bill.

Active power is not a problem for Functional Load of household appliances such as A.C, Freeze, motor in its operation. It is a problem for an electric company if it charges only KW. If both customers use the same amount of real power but one has a power factor of 0.5, that customer also doubles the current. This current increase requires Power Company to use larger transformers, cables and related equipment.

Reimburseing these costs The Power Company has charged Chargers to industry customers for their low power supplies and has provided them with benefits when they upgrade their Power Factor internally. Residential customers (households) are not charged extra fees for their active capacity.

2. Energy Conservation in Resistant Home Load

Since the opposing load does not carry PF so there is no problem regarding Voltage and Curent filtering, So Power = Current Voltage X.

3. In the case of Voltage Spike / Flexible Household Flexibility

In the above discussion it simply proves that as long as the voltage and current do not change, the energy used will also remain unchanged. However, if there is an increase in electrical energy due to fluctuations, as described above your electrical appliances will be forced to use the same amount of energy. This becomes even more evident because the current, which is a function of voltage, also increases equally. However, this increase in power consumption will be negligible; The following simple statistics will prove this.

Consider a bulb that consumes 100 watts of 220 volts. This means that at 240 volts it will use about 109 watts of power. The increase is almost 9% and since such fluctuations are not uncommon, this number may be reduced to less than 1%, and that is negligible.

So the above discussions prove conclusively that energy conservation will never work and this idea is impossible.

What happens if Power Storage is installed?

Fig. Shows the effect of using the Power Saver. The air conditioner (with a large compressor motor) still consumes active energy but is supplied by a nearby capacitor (which is in those boxes "KVAR"). If you were to mount it on an air conditioner and turn it on with an air conditioner and mix the capacitor size properly, there would be no active force on the return line of the fuse panel.

If the cable between the panels of your fuse is too long and too low, lowering the current may result in cooling and high voltage in the air conditioner. This saving due to cooler cables is less.

What happens when Power Storage is installed

Another problem is that when you install a "KVAR" unit on a fuse panel, it does nothing to lose heat other than two meters of large wire between the fuse panel and the usage meter. Many KVAR units are sold as boxes that you place in one place.

Conclusion

Energy efficiency equipment improves energy quality but generally does not improve energy savings (meaning it will not reduce your energy bill). There are a number of reasons why their energy-saving claims may be exaggerated.

First, residential customers are not charged KVA - hourly usage, but by kilowatt-hour. This means that any savings on energy demand will not directly lead to a reduction in the residential service bill.

Second, the only real energy saving potential would be if the product was placed only near a circuit while active loading (such as an engine) was running, and removed from the circuit when the engine was not running. This does not happen, given that there are a few engines in a typical home that can come in at any time (refrigerator, air conditioner, HVAC spray, vacuum cleaner, etc.), but the Power Store itself is designed to be permanently connected, not supervised. house breaker panel.

And certainly not in the way that manufacturers recommend installing them, that is, permanently connecting them to the main panel. Doing so drains the capacitive factor of energy when inductive motors are turned off and can cause real problems with ringing voltages.

KVAR requires full size to measure inductive loads. Since our motors rotate and close and we do not use air conditioner in winter, there is no way to measure it properly unless we have something to monitor the line and turn it on and off the capacitors as needed.

Adding a capacitor can increase the voltage of the line to dangerous levels because it interacts with incoming power lines. Adding a capacitor to a line with harmonic frequencies (created by certain electronic devices) on it can cause unwanted noise and high waves.

In commercial environments, energy efficiency adjustments are rarely less expensive based on energy efficiency alone. The bulk of the cost of adjusting the power factor that can be supplied is in the form of avoided costs of the low power element.

Energy savings are usually less than 1% and remain less than 3% of the load, the highest percentage occurs when engines are a major component of the entire facility load. Energy saving alone does not make installation costs effective.

Control Panel APFC

Motor Control Circuit(MCC)

Induction Cooktop Working

Induction cooktop, uses electromagnetism to turn cooking pans into a furnace (creating heat energy inside the pan itself, instead of shooting it out), which cooks food faster and safer with less energy.

If electricity is supplied to the inlet cooking area, then the current flows into the input coil that generates magnetic energy just above the cooking area. As a magnetic field that flexible magnet is produced as we install AC Current. a powerful electric motor but nowhere to go; we call it eddy current. As it circles inside a metal crystal structure, it exposes its energy. So a metal pan heats up and heats up any food inside it, first by moving (it transfers its heat energy directly to the food) but also by moving.

 The induction cooker looks very similar to any other ceramic cooking area, usually with separate areas where you can place pots and pans. The kitchen is usually made of solid, non-heated ceramic glass like Schott CERAN.

 Inside each cooking area, there is a metal coil with a solid wound. When you turn on the power, the switching power flows into the coil and produces an invisible, high frequency, magnetic field alternating around it. Unless there is a pan in the cooking area, no heat is generated: the cooking area remains cold. You may be wondering why we need high frequency. Although your home electricity switch is about 50Hz (50 times per second), the imported cooking area increases this by about 500–1000 times (usually up to 20–40kHz). Since that is more than the distance most of us can hear, it stops any annoying, audible buzzing. More importantly, it prevents the magnetic field from turning the pan into a cooking area.

 Place the pan in the cooking area and the magnetic field produced by the coil (shown here with blue stripes) penetrates the metal inside it.

The magnetic field pulls the electric current (eddy) into the pan, turning it into a heater (shown here in orange).

The heat from the pan flows directly into the food or water inside it (by steering).

how to run fuse tube light

The tube-light is covered due to its long-term use. You may notice that the fluorescent tube-light lamp used is black on both ends. This cycle is to light up those connected tube-lights.

Have you ever considered using a reconnected tube lamp? (Usually discarded). Well here I am showing a simple cycle using a 4 diode reusable integrated light tube.

230 v AC supply

Diode -IN4007 or 159 X 4pcs

The tube-light is covered due to its long-term use. You may notice that the fluorescent tube-light lamp used is black on both ends. This cycle is to light up those connected tube-lights.

Have you ever considered using a reconnected tube lamp? (Often discarded). Well here I show a simple circuit using an integrated 4 light diode integrated light tube.

DOL Starter controling Diagram

Direct On Line Motor Starter includes tracking MCCB, Contactor and overload relay for protection. An electromagnetic contactor that can be turned on is a thermal overload relay under error conditions.The contactor controls with the start and stop buttons, and the contact assistant on the contactor is used, across the first button, as a holder for contact. i.e. the power connector is turned off while the engine is running. Usually up to 5HP induction motor we choose the first DOL method.

Direct On Line Starter (DOL) Terms of Service:

To start, the contactor is closed, using a full line voltage on the motor stator windings. The motor will pull the highest inrush current for a very short time, the magnetic field of the metal, and the current will be limited to the Locked Rotor Current of the motor. The motor will improve the Locked Rotor Torque and start accelerating towards full speed.

As the engine speeds up, the current will start to decrease, but it will not slow down until the engine is at full speed, usually 85% of the corresponding speed. The first real current curve is the car design function, as well as the terminal voltage, and is completely independent of the car load.

The load on the motor will affect the time taken for the engine to accelerate at full speed and therefore the maximum duration of the initial current, but not the maximum initial current.

As long as the torque generated by the engine exceeds the torque of the load at all speeds during the first cycle, the engine will reach full speed.

Advantages of DOL Starter: -

1. These are the simplest types to begin with.

2. The most economical and cheapest launcher.

3. Maintenance costs are very low.

Disadvantages of DOL Starter: -

1. It pulls the highest inrush current at the start which is 6-8 times the engine limit which limits its use to motors of only 7.5 KW.

2. It will apply high thermal stress to cars which will reduce the life of the vehicles.

3. The current High Starting will lead to a voltage drop.

Ferrite Bead

Our laptops are our daily resource, we can use them for over 6-7 hours but have you seen the little things waiting for us at the end of it.

They always looked like useless additions that never made sense to anyone but these little cylinders called Ferrite beads. These small letters are a reason to reduce distraction.

Any device that works with power transmission also selects power from other devices. So are our laptops with power switches on the switch that enable them to transmit radio waves. This process is called EMI (electromagnetic interference). This EMI leads to unavoidable power loss with the help of this tiny cylinder. Loss of power will obviously result in less charging of your laptops to reduce that and radio frequency noise can also be reduced.

Air Conditioners with Inverter technology

The latest and most effective technology available on the market today is Inverter Technology for air conditioners. Inverter technology is designed in such a way that it can save 30-50% of the electricity (units used) over normal air conditioning.

How does the air conditioner work?

The air conditioner during the cooling process, takes indoor air, cools it by passing it to the evaporator and then throws it back into our operating room with indoor air. Along with the evaporator air conditioner it also has a compressor that presses gas (refrigerator) to AC to cool itself and cool the incoming indoor air from the chamber.

In standard air conditioner:

The compressor is off or on. When turned on, it works at full capacity and consumes the full power it is designed to use. When the thermostat reaches a temperature set at AC, the compressor stops and the fan (to AC) continues to operate. When the thermostat senses that the temperature is rising, the compressor starts again.

On Air Conditioner with Inverter technology:

Inverter technology acts as an accelerator in the car. When a compressor needs more power, it gives you more power. When it needs less energy, it gives less energy. With this technology, the compressor remains open, but draws less energy or more power depending on the temperature of the incoming air and the level set by the thermostat. The speed and power of the compressor are adjusted accordingly. This technology was developed in Japan and used there successfully in air conditioners and refrigerators. This technology is currently only available on separate air conditioners.

What are the benefits of Inverter Technology?

All air conditioners are designed for high loading. So 1.5ton AC is designed for a specific room size and 1 ton for a different size. But not all rooms are the same size. A standard 1.5ton air conditioner will always operate at high power requirements when the compressor is operating. An air conditioner with inverter technology will work continuously but will only absorb most of the energy needed to maintain the desired temperature. It therefore automatically adjusts its volume according to the requirements of the cooling room. So draw very little power and use smaller power units.

Although airconditioner with Inverter Technology adjusts its volume based on the needs of the room, it is very important to install the right amount of air in the room. Please make sure you check the room and air conditioner capacity before purchase. Keep an eye out for this space as we are in the process of making a comparison of energy saving on different air conditioners.

Are Inverter technology air conditioners slow to cool?

In comparison, inverter tech AC changes the flow rate of the refrigerator based on room temperature. When the temperature is low, the flow rate is low, when the temperature is high, the flow rate is high. And it does not always turn off the compressor. It simply ensures that when the temperature setting is 25, it is maintained at that level.

So the difference is: the non-inverter AC will cool down, while the inverter AC will cool down much better. And thus one may feel that the AC inverter is neither cool nor fast.

The lesser-known benefits of Inverter Technology

Ordinary engines require 3-4 times more current (over current performance) in the beginning. Therefore the size of the inverter / generator required to use any AC or Refrigerator is greatly increased. But Inverter Technology air conditioners and refrigerators with flexible speed engines that start slowly require very little performance at first. Therefore the size of the inverter / generator needed to start is small. For example. A fixed speed of 1.5 ton AC operating at about 10 Amp current may require up to 30 Amp current when starting as well as a 5 kVA inverter / generator. But the inverter technology Air Conditioner requires about 6-7 Amp current and not too much at first and thus a 1.5 kVA or 2 kVA inverter / generator is good enough to support it.

Normal motors have a very low power factor. In commercial and industrial connectivity there is a low power factor charge and a high power factor discount. The inverter technology engine will have a power factor close to the unit (or 1) which not only results in less power consumption but also helps to get discounts on a better power factor.

If you plan to use Solar PV air conditioner, it is best to use inverter technology air conditioner or refrigerator as it not only reduces the size of the PV panel because it consumes less electricity, and reduces the size of the inverter to integrate the PV panel .

How you can use the 3 phase change over switch in home

Basically, there could be two type of phase changing device, one could be an automated one with a digital numeric relay for automatic change over and the another one is a basic manual one which have to be operated by a human. 

For typical domestic use, the device illustrated bellow have two more identical units mounted over a board with some indications regarding the number of phase available and the currently applied change over status.

The red, yellow and blue indicating lights will be in two sets in which the first set will be pointing towards the availability and healthiness of all the respective three phases at the incoming side of the device. By looking at these indication, one can determine that out three phases, which phase is available. 
Similarly the second set of indication lamp is showing the status of the three phases at the outgoing end of the device (Which will be the actual status of the three phases being fed to your home).

whenever there will be an phase outage due to faults or blown fuses at the power distribution feeder end, both sets of same coloured indication lamps will stop glowing to which phase they are assigned for (e.g. if only both sets of Yellow and Blue indication lamps are working that implicates that power supply to Red phase have been disrupted).

And now comes the part where the actual operation of the phase converter/selector will be done. There would be three similar rotary switches with three/four similar markings on it, so lets pick one switch for ease of understanding. Normally, the following would be the positions of the selector switch, for R Phase selection, the knob on switch will be indicating 1 or R. For Y-Phase, the knob will be positioned on 2 or Y and similar for the 3rd of Y phase.  

Suppose the Red indication lamps are not working, but other two are working, then the switched have to be adjusted so that only Y and B phase will be supplied further, hence the R-Phase's knob will be rotated and can be placed on either position number 2 or 3 from its earlier position of 1 so that the power line of R phase is connected to that of Y or B-Phase.

So, when the above mechanism is applied, all the 3 indication lamp on the second set will start working although the one indication lamp on the incomer side is still dark, this shows that the changeover have been completed successfully.

Things to remember !!

• Never ever do this change-over operation with your main supply on, in order to avoid a possible flashover, always drop the main MCB of your home before operating the device.
• Never ever use this change over device if you have a direct 3-phase device like flour-mill or water pump of high capacity as the two similar phase will damage the device.
• Always remember to re-position the knobs to its original position once the phase have been restored if the damage caused by heavy flow of current over a single phase have to be avoided.

Working of tester

A Neon screwdriver or tester is commonly used to check the live wires. If the circuit is live, the neon bulb glows. We can also name it as voltage testing device. However the terms Phase checker, Line tester, Live checker and Positive presence checker is also used to identify the instrument. Here is the full construction with all parts indicated.

Metal Rod:

It is a metallic rod. The lower tip of the rod is specially chamfered to a specific screw design. This end is connected with the live wire. The upper end of this rod is completely cylindrical and it joins with the resistor.

Resistor

Resistor reduces the amount of current in the circuit. This current reduction provides a safe limit for the neon bulb. Next to resistor, the neon bulb is connected.

Neon Bulb

The neon bulb is used as the current indicator. When connected to live circuit, this neon bulb glow and we can know that circuit is live. If there is no current the bulb will not glow.

Spring Elements

Next to neon bulb a metallic conductive spring element is connected. It serves as a bridge or junction between the bulb and cap.

Cap

Next to spring a cap connects. This cap serves two purposes. Its internal sides keep all the equipment tightly pressed within the plastic assembly. Whereas its external side in pressed by the finger. (Full working explained in the working section)

Clip

A clip is conventionally connected with the cap.

Plastic Assembly

The plastic assembly surrounds the whole arrangement and its purpose is to insulate the entire design from human body so as to prevent shock and hazardous conditions.

Working

During working the low end of the metallic rod is connected with the live wire whereas the upper end of the cap is pressed by the human finger. The internal resistance of tester connects in series with the human body. Remember that this internal resistance is very high typically it is the order 200 k. Now the circuit completes and limited current runs through the human body. This current also flows through the neon bulb and it lights up if the circuit is live.

There are a few precautions that should be employed while using the tester. However, two most important precautions are mentioned here:

• The tester should only be used when you are sure that voltage is within 500 V. Also make sure that proper resistor is connected. Never connect the instrument until you are 100% sure.
• Always use the good quality instrument, you can save a few bucks on low-quality material but it can harm your life.

Why don't birds get electrocuted sitting on power lines?

Current flows in a loop[ which means the circuit is closed]. A bird sitting on a transmission line does not complete the circuit. If the same bird keeps one leg on one line and another leg (or any part of its body) on another line(or the neutral points), then it will get roasted.

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Consider this circuit where a bird sits on the wire:

The values R1 and R2 are resistances of the line. Electricity takes the path of least resistance. The two legs of the bird which is perched on the same line does not complete the circuit. The R_Bird( resistance of the bird’s body) is much higher than that of the line, so the bird might not experience high current. The potential difference between the two legs of the bird is same( since the resistance of the line is the same throughout).The current flows on.The bird is safe.

Now consider this scenario:

A bird sitting on a line decides to fly away and raises the wings. With one wing touching the neighboring line and the leg on the first line, this creates a closed circuit. Thus electricity (following the path of least resistance) will detect a potential difference between the wing (which touches the other line) and the leg(which is placed on the first line). The current tries to take on that path creating a short-circuit. Eventually the bird gets zapped and falls off the line. Now the current will continue to flow on.

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The lesson we learn here is that when ever we play with electricity, make sure you (your body) does not close the circuit. When we poke our fingers into an electrical socket we get shocked because our body will offer a lower resistance . Thus a potential difference will be created between your finger and the feet( which is placed on the floor acting as a neutral point).

Is it bad to charge your phone over night?

As we know, our smartphone batteries are bad as they barely last a day. At the earlier days when we buy it, it’s the fault of smartphone manufacturers. But what about several days later? It’s to some extent your own fault for charging it wrong this whole time. For example, charging phone overnight.

​

Firstly, let’s have a look at the following saying: charging phone overnight, or more specifically, charging phone when it’s already fully charged, will keep it in a high-stress, high-tension state, which will surely do wear down the battery with lasting damage at the same time.
So, is it true? Is charging phone overnight bad?
Well, you’d better ignore that. We couldn’t be more wrong.
And the truth is that Charging phone overnight will not harm your battery in the slightest. Any device with a Lithium Polymer battery must incorporate a charging circuit that will cut off charging power when the battery reaches 100%.
Besides, the smartphone battery is as smart as the phone itself. Apple, Samsung and all the top tech companies, almost of whose products use lithium-based batteries.

That aside, however, Lithium-ion batteries don’t need to be charged all the way to 100%. While your phone runs troughtout the night, it loses battery life. And this will cause the charging mechanism to kick in over and over again as amounts of battery drain occurs during standby when checking emails, receiving text messages, and updating various apps while you sleep.

Let’s take an example. If you head to bed at 11 p.m. with a battery percentage in the single digits, your phone will be fully charged by 2 a.m. If you wake up at 6 a.m., that’s 4 hours that your phone stays plugged in with a full battery.

So what is the optimal way to charge your phone? That is to keep them charged between 50 and 80 percent.

Additionally, we have to mention Charge Cycles, that is, your battery goes from empty or near-empty to full. Every phone battery has a limited number of charge cycles before the end of its life. An iPhone has about 500 charging cycles. When charged up from 90%, only 10% of a complete charge cycle used. Whereas, when charged up from zero, then a complete charge cycle done. Or you’ll actually shorten your battery life if you do so.

Surely, here is another good idea for charging, or portable charging. And that is to take a power bank in hand, in pocket.

Magnetic Starter - Control Stations

One of the advantages of magnetic starters is the ability to add control stations. These stations may be located at any convenient location and duplicated as required. The maximum number of stations and their location is unlimited for all practical purposes. Stations are built using Normally Closed (STOP) and Normally Open (START) momentary contact switches. These switches must be rated for the control circuit voltage at a minimum. Over-rated switches will work fine. Many manufacturers incorporate both Normally Open (NO) and Normally Closed (NC) contacts in a single switch body. By rewiring the switch you can change it from one to the other. Many manufacturers also provide interchangeable buttons in at least red and green.

The last station must always be provided to complete the circuit. The intermediate stations may be repeated as many times as required. Suitable 3 conductor control wiring is required from the starter to each of the control stations in turn (daisy chained).

Air Compressor or Float Pump/3ph Starter/1ph Motor

Line Voltage Control Magnetic Starter controlled by a air compressor pressure switch (NC). Includes Auto/Hand/Off control and low oil switch (NC). Both of these are optional and may not be present in all applications. In some cases, the switch will include only Auto/Off. The Auto/Hand/Off is sometimes an integral part of a factory pressure switch. Auto allows for unattended, automatic starting of the compressor when the air pressure in the tank falls below the preset limit. Hand (manual control) allows the pump to be turned on regardless of the position of the pressure switch. This may or may not be appropriate for all applications and is shown in the interest of completeness only. Hand should be used with caution and due consideration to what is happening in the circuit. Off is self explanatory. If no low oil switch is present, merely remove it from the circuit and continue the wires from the start switch back to the coil.

Incidentally, the same circuit can be used to power a sump pump. The float switch (NO) for the sump would be connected in place of the pressure switch. When the switch detects liquid, the contacts will close and the pump motor will start - assuming that the Start Switch is in the Auto position. Hand is obviously desirable in a sump pump application as it allows the pump to be activated even if the float switch is not functioning.

3ph Starter/3ph Motor/Reversible

Line Voltage Control - double contactor three phase motor starter controlling a reversible three phase motor (rev 08 Aug 2006) (Note: L1 becomes T3 and L3 becomes T1 when the reverse relay is actuated.) The motor must be STOPPED before REVERSING unless the contactor allows for on-the-fly reversing. The coils are locked out via the NC contacts (M1, M2) usually contained within the mechanical interlock. When Coil #M1 is engaged, Coil #M2 is locked out and vice-versa.

3ph Starter/1ph Motor

Line Voltage Control three phase (3ph) motor starter controlling a single phase motor (rev 08 Aug 2006) Some 3 phase Magnetic Motor Starters require current to be seen across each of the three overloads. This may be accomplished by directing the output of second circuit back into the input of the third (previously unused) circuit and feeding the motor off of the output of the third circuit (rather than the second). Wiring then becomes: Line 1 → L1 → T1 → Motor 1 (L1-hot 240v or neutral 120v) Line 2 → L2 → T2 → L3 → T3 → Motor 2 (L2-hot 120v or 240v)

Manual Starter? Merely ignore the control wiring in RED

Over Load Relay

132/33 kv substation

Earthing

BIO-FUELS - BURNING DOMESTIC WASTE

Recently interest has grown in the burning of garbage / domestic waste to produce electricity. This is not a new idea although in the past when waste was burned it created pollution that could even be toxic. Today, the technology exists to remove almost all the pollutants from the fumes produced during the energy production cycle. Special filters remove dangerous chemicals and particles that would normally be found in the fumes.
1. The domestic waste is sorted usually by hand to remove materials than can be recycled. Steel is removed using electromagnets and this is stored until there is enough quantity for recycling to be economically viable. Aluminium, in the form of cans is removed by hand. Other recyclable materials are collected separately. These include, garden waste, newspapers, cardboard, bottles, waste food and even used batteries.
2. The waste is then ‘dropped’ into the hopper of a furnace. When the doors slide open it falls into the burning chamber. Gas is normally used to start the fire which burns at a high temperature, destroying the domestic waste.
Whilst the waste burns it heats a water tank, in turn, producing steam. The steam is used to turn turbines, producing electricity.
Once steam has been produced, the production of electrical power is no different than that used in any other power station. The high pressure steam is used to turn electrical turbines which produce electricity. The advantage of this way of producing electricity is that the domestic waste that would normally be buried in land fill sites or even dumped far out at sea, is burned. This means that vast areas of land that would have to be used for land fill are free for agriculture or for building.
The domestic waste is burned in the furnace. This heats water in a tank producing steam. The high pressure steam is used to turn turbines, producing electricity. The steam produced during the process condenses back to water and is recycled for heating once again. Pollutants are removed from the fumes before they are allowed into the atmosphere.

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Cables classification on the basis of Operating Voltage

Current rating of different size of cable

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tariff

TARIFF

The electrical energy produced at the generating station is delivered to a large number of consumers. The rate at which energy is sold to the consumers (called tariff) is fixed by the supplying company .While fixing the tariff, the supply companies are to ensure that they should not only recover the total cost of producing the energy but also earn some profit. However, the profit should be minimum possible so that electrical energy can be sold at reasonable rates and the consumers insured to use more electricity. 

IMPORTANT TERMS

·      Connected load :  The sum of the continuous ratings of all the equipments connected to the power system is called connected load.

·      Maximum Demand :   The load on the power station is not constant, it varies from time to time.The greatest of all the demands (loads) which occur during a given period is called maximum demands.

·      The ratio of maximum demand on the system to the rated connected load to the system is called demand factor.

     Mathematically ,Demand factor  =   Maximum demand  

                                                               Connected load

     The actual maximum demand is always less than the rated load connected to the system , therefore, demand factor is always less than unity.

The rate of electrical energy at which it is sold to the consumers is called tariff .The supply companies invest money to generate, transmit and distribution of electrical energy, a tariff is fixed .The cost of generation depends upon the magnitude of energy consumed by the consumers and his load conditions. Therefore, due consideration is given to different types of consumers (e.g. domestic, commercial and industrial) while fixing a tariff

The main objective of the tariff is to ensure the recovery of the total cost of generation and distribution .Tariff should include the following items:

(1) Recovery of cost of electrical energy generated at the generating system.

(2) Recovery of cost on the capital investment in transmission and distribution system.

(3) Recovery of cost of operation, supplies and maintenance of equipment.

(4) Recovery of cost of metering equipment, billing and miscellaneous services .

(5) A marginal return (Profit) on the capital investment

TYPES OF TARIFF

There are various types of consumers ( domestic, commercial and industrial etc.) and their energy requirements are also different. Accordingly, several types of tariffs have been designed so far, out of which the most commonly applied are described below:

1.      SIMPLE TARIFF

2.      FLAT RATE TARRIF

3.      BLOCK RATE TARIFF

4.      TWO-PART TARIFF

5.      MAXIMUM DEMAND TARIFF

6.      POWER FACTOR TARIFF

1.Simple Tariff: The tariff in which the rate per unit of energy is fixed, is called simple tariff.

This is a simplest possible tariff. The rate per unit of energy consumed by the consumer is fixed irrespective to the quantity of energy consumed by a consumer. This energy consumed is measured by installing an energy meter

The following are the advantages :

            1.         It is in simplest form and easily understood by the consumers.

            2.         Consumer is to pay as per his consumption.

Disadvantages

1.                  Consumer is to pay the same rate per unit of energy consumed irrespective of the number of units consumed by him. Hence, consumers are not encourage to consume more energy.

2.                  The cost of energy per unit delivered is high.

3.                  The supplier does not get any return for the connection given to the consumer if consumer does not consume any energy in a particular month.

Application :

Since it is very simple form of tariff, it is generally applied to tube wells which are operated for irrigation purposes

2. Flat rate tariff.  The tariff in which different types of consumers are charged at different per unit rates is called flat rate tariff. This type of tariff is similar to simple tariff. Only difference is that consumers are grouped into different classes and each class of consumer is charged at a different per unit rate. For example flat rate for fan and light loads is slightly higher than that for power loads.

Advantages

(1) It is fairer to different types of consumers.

( 2) It is quite simple in calculations.

Disadvantages

(1) Consumers are not encouraged to consume more energy because same rate per unit of energy consumed is charged irrespective of the quantity of energy consumed.

(2) Separate meters are required to measured energy consumed for light loads and power loads.

(3) The suppliers does not get any return for the connection given to the consumer if he does not consume any energy in a particular period or month. 

Application :Generally applied to domestic consumers. Since it is simple and easy for explanation  to consumers, therefore this tariff is  

3.block rate tariff:

The tariff in which first block of energy is charged at a given rate and the succeeding blocks of energy are charged at progressively reduced rates is called block rate tariff

In this type of tariff, the energy units are divided into numbers of blocks and the rate per unit of energy is fixed for each block. The rate per unit of energy for the first block is the  highest and reduces progressively with the succeeding blocks. For example, the first 100 units may be charged at the rate of Rs. 3.00 per unit; the next 100 units may  be charged at the rate of Rs.2.50 per unit and the remaining additional units may charged at the rate of Rs. 2.00 per unit. 

Advantages:

(1)   By giving an incentive, the consumers are encouraged to consume more energy. This increases the load factor of the power system and hence reduces per unit cost of generation.

(2)    Only one energy meter is required to measure the energy .

Disadvantages:

(1)   The supplier does not get any return for the connection given to the consumer if consumer does not consume any energy in a particular period.

Application

This type of tariff is mostly applied to domestic and small commercial consumers.

4.Two – Part Tariff

The tariff in which electrical energy is charged  on the basis of maximum demand of the consumer and the units consumed by him is called two- part tariff.

In this tariff, the total charges to be made from the consumer are split into two components namely fixed charges  and running charges. The fixed charges are independent of energy consumed  by the consumer but depend upon the maximum demand, whereas the running charges depend upon the energy consumed by the consumer. The maximum demand of the consumer is assessed on the basis of the kW capacity of all the electrical devices owned by a particular consumer or on the connected load

Thus, the consumer is charged at a certain amount per kW of energy is consumed i.e.

        Total charges= Rs. (a X kW + b X kWh )

where, Rs. a= charges per kW of maximum demand

              Rs. b= charges per kWh of energy consumed

In this tariff basically, the charges made on maximum demand recovers the fixed charges of generation such as interest and depreciation on the capital cost of building and equipment, taxes and a part of operating cost which is independent of energy generated. Whereas, the charges made on energy consumed, recovers operating cost which varies with variation in generated (or supplied) energy.

Advantages

(1)   It is easily understood by the consumers.

(2)   The supplier gets the return in the form of fixed charges for the connection given to the consumer even if he does not consume any energy in a particular period.

Disadvantages

(1)   If a consumer does not consume any energy in a month even then he has to pay the fixed charges .

(2)   Since the maximum demand of consumer is not measured, therefore, there is always conflict between consumer and the supplier to assess the maximum demand.